I. Characteristics of Sleep Apnea
First described in 1965, sleep apnea is a breathing disorder characterized by brief interruptions (10 seconds or more) of breathing during sleep. Sleep apnea is a common but serious, potentially life-threatening condition, affecting as many as 18 million Americans.
There are two types of sleep apnea: central and obstructive. Central sleep apnea, which is relatively rare, occurs when the brain fails to send the appropriate signal to the breathing muscles to initiate respirations, e.g., as a result of brain stem injury or damage. Mechanical ventilation is the only treatment available to ensure continued breathing.
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is far more common. Normally, the muscles of the upper part of the throat keep the airway open to permit air flow into the lungs. When the muscles of the soft palate, the base of the tongue, and the uvula (the small fleshy tissue hanging from the center of the back of the throat) relax and sag, the relaxed tissues may vibrate as air flows past the tissues during breathing, resulting in snoring. Snoring affects about half of men and 25 percent of women—most of whom are age 50 or older.
In more serious cases, the airway becomes blocked, making breathing labored, or even stopping it altogether. In a given night, the number of involuntary breathing pauses or “apneic events” may be as high as 20 to 30 or more per hour. These breathing pauses are almost always accompanied by snoring between apnea episodes, although not everyone who snores has the condition. Sleep apnea can also be characterized by choking sensations.
Lack of air intake into the lungs results in lower levels of oxygen and increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. Upon an apneic event, the sleeping person is unable to continue normal respiratory function and the level of oxygen saturation in the blood is reduced. The brain will sense the condition and cause the sleeper to struggle and gasp for air. Breathing will then resume, often followed by continued apneic events. There are potentially damaging effects to the heart and blood vessels due to abrupt compensatory swings in blood pressure. Upon each event, the sleeping person will be partially aroused from sleep, resulting in a greatly reduced quality of sleep and associated daytime fatigue. The frequent interruptions of deep, restorative sleep often lead to early morning headaches, excessive daytime sleepiness, depression, irritability, and learning and memory difficulties.
The medical community has become aware of the increased incidence of heart attacks, hypertension and strokes in people with moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea. It is estimated that up to 50 percent of sleep apnea patients have high blood pressure.
Although some apneic events are normal in all persons and mammals, the frequency of blockages will determine the seriousness of the disease and potential for health damage. When the incidence of blockage is frequent, corrective action should be taken.
II. The Anatomy of the Upper Airway
As FIG. 1 shows, the upper airway consists of a conduit that begins at the nasal valve, situated in the tip of the nose, and extends to the larynx, which is also called the voice box because it houses the vocal cords. The pharynx (which, in Greek, means “throat”) is a cone-shaped passageway in the upper airway that leads from the oral and nasal cavities in the head to the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx serves both respiratory and digestive functions. Both circular and longitudinal muscles are present in the walls of this organ, which are called the pharyngeal walls. The circular muscles form constrictions that help push food to the esophagus and prevent air from being swallowed, while the longitudinal muscles lift the walls of the pharynx during swallowing.
The pharynx consists of three main divisions. The anterior portion is the nasal pharynx, the back section of the nasal cavity. The nasal pharynx connects to the second region, the oral pharynx, by means of a passage called an isthmus. The oral pharynx begins at the back of the mouth cavity and continues down the throat to the epiglottis, a flap of tissue that covers the air passage to the lungs and that channels food to the esophagus. The isthmus connecting the oral and nasal regions allows humans to breathe through either the nose or the mouth. The third region is the laryngeal pharynx, which begins at the epiglottis and leads down to the esophagus. Its function is to regulate the passage of air to the lungs and food to the esophagus. Air from the nasal cavity flows into the larynx, and food from the oral cavity is routed to the esophagus directly behind the larynx. The epiglottis, a cartilaginous, leaf-shaped flap, functions as a lid to the larynx and, during the act of swallowing, controls the traffic of air and food.
The mouth cavity marks the start of the digestive tube. Oval in shape, it consists of two parts: the vestibule and the mouth cavity proper.
The vestibule is the smaller outer portion, delimited externally by the lips and cheeks and internally by the gums and teeth. It connects with the body surface through the rima or orifice of the mouth. The vestibule receives the secretion of the parotid salivary glands and connects when the jaws are closed with the mouth cavity proper by an aperture on both sides behind the wisdom teeth, and by narrow clefts between opposing teeth.
The mouth cavity proper contains the tongue and is delimited laterally and in the front by the alveolar arches with the teeth therein contained. It receives the secretion from the submaxillary and sublingual salivary glands. The mouth cavity proper connects with the pharynx by a constricted aperture called isthmus faucium.
The tongue is a mobile muscular organ that can assume a variety of shapes and positions. The tongue has a relatively fixed inferior part that is attached to the hyoid bone and mandible. The rest of the tongue is called the body of the tongue. It is essentially a mass of muscles that is mostly covered by mucous membrane. The muscles in the tongue do not act in isolation. Some muscles perform multiple actions with parts of one muscle acting independently producing different, sometimes antagonistic, actions.
The tongue is partly in the mouth or oral cavity and partly in the pharynx. At rest, it occupies essentially all of the oral cavity. The posterior part of the tongue demarcates the posterior boundary of the oral cavity. Its mucous membrane is thick and freely movable.
The tongue is involved with mastication, taste, articulation, and oral cleansing. Its two main functions are forming words during speaking and squeezing food into the pharynx when swallowing.
The palate forms the arched roof of the oral or mouth cavity (the mouth) and the floor of the nasal cavities (the nose). It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavities and the nasal pharynx. The palate consists of two regions—the hard palate anteriorly and the soft palate posteriorly.
The hard palate is vaulted and defines the space filled by the tongue when it is at rest. The hard palate has a hard bony skeleton, hence its name.
The soft palate has no bony skeleton, hence its name. The soft palate is suspended from the posterior border of the hard palate. It extends posteriorly and inferiorly as a curved free margin from which hangs a conical process, called the uvula. Muscles arise from the base of the cranium and descend into the soft palate. The muscles allow the soft palate to be elevated during swallowing into contact with the posterior pharyngeal wall. The muscles also allow the soft palate to be drawn inferiorly during swallowing into contact with the posterior part of the tongue.
The soft palate is thereby very dynamic and movable. When a person swallows, the soft palate initially is tensed to allow the tongue to press against it, to squeeze the bolus of food to the back of the mouth. The soft palate is then elevated posteriorly and superiorly against the pharyngeal wall, acting as a valve which closes and prevents passage of food into the nasal cavity.
III. Sleep and the Anatomy of the Upper Airway
Although all tissue along this conduit is dynamic and responsive to the respiratory cycle, only the pharynx, in particular the nasopharynx (the area at the soft palate and the pharyngeal walls) and the oropharynx (the area at the tongue base and the pharyngeal walls), is totally collapsible. The pharyngeal structures and individual anatomic components within this region include the pharyngeal walls, the base of the tongue, the soft palate with uvula, and the epiglottis.
The cross sectional area of the upper airway varies with the phases of the respiratory cycle. At the initiation of inspiration (Phase I), the airway begins to dilate and then to remain relatively constant through the remainder of inspiration (Phase II). At the onset of expiration (Phase III) the airway begins to dilate, reaching maximum diameter and then diminishing in size so that at the end of expiration (Phase IV), it is at its narrowest, corresponding to the time when the upper airway dilator muscles are least active, and positive intraluminal pressure is lowest. The upper airway, therefore, has the greatest potential for collapse and closure at end-expiration [ref: Schwab R J, Goldberg A N. Upper airway assessment: radiographic and other imaging techniques. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1998: 31:931-968].
Sleep is characterized by a reduction in upper airway dilator muscle activity. For the individual with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and perhaps the other disorders which comprise much of the group of entities called obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), it is believed that this change in muscle function causes pharyngeal narrowing and collapse. Two possible etiologies for this phenomenon in OSA patients have been theorized. One is that these individuals reduce the airway dilator muscle tone more than non-apneics during sleep (the neural theory). The other is that all individuals experience the same reduction in dilator activity in sleep, but that the apneic has a pharynx that is structurally less stable (the anatomic theory). Both theories may in fact be contributors to OSA, but current studies seem to support that OSA patients have an intrinsically structurally narrowed and more collapsible pharynx [ref: Isono S. Remmers J, Tanaka A Sho Y, Sato J, Nishino T. Anatomy of pharynx in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and in normal subjects. J Appl Physiol 1997:82:1319-1326.] Although this phenomenon is often accentuated at specific sites, such as the velopharyngeal level [Isono], studies of closing pressures [Isono] supports dynamic fast MRI imaging that shows narrowing and collapse usually occurs along the entire length of the pharynx [ref: Shellock F G, Schatz CJ, Julien P, Silverman J M, Steinberg F, Foo T K F, Hopp M L, Westbrook P R. Occlusion and narrowing of the pharyngeal airway in obstructive sleep apnea: evaluation by ultrafast spoiled GRASS M R imaging. Am J of Roentgenology 1992:158:1019-1024].
IV. Treatment Options
To date, the only modality that addresses collapse along the entire upper airway is mechanical positive pressure breathing devices, such as continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machines. All other modalities, such as various surgical procedures and oral appliances, by their nature, address specific sectors of the airway (such as palate, tongue base and hyoid levels), but leave portions of pharyngeal wall-untreated. This may account for the considerably higher success rate of CPAP over surgery and appliances in controlling OSA. Although CPAP, which in essence acts as an airway splint for the respiratory cycle, is highly successful, it has some very significant shortcomings. It can be cumbersome to wear and travel with, difficult to accept on a social level, and not tolerated by many (for reasons such as claustrophobia, facial and nasal mask pressure sores, airway irritation). These factors have lead to a relatively poor long-term compliance rate. One study has shown that 65% of patients abandon their CPAP treatment in 6 months.
Other current treatments for OSA include genioglossal advancement (GA) and maxillomandibular advancement (MMA). These treatments involve highly invasive surgical procedures and a long recovery time, and therefore have relatively low patient appeal.
The need remains for simple, cost-effective devices, systems, and methods for reducing or preventing sleep disordered breathing events.